Those that are no longer on their lists of required books they resell to national wholesalers, which in turn sell them to college bookstores on campuses where they will be required.
This means that even if a text is being adopted for the first time at a particular college, there is almost certain to be an ample supply of used copies. But while a brief, one- or two-sentence paragraph can be used to set off an idea you want to emphasize, too many short paragraphs can make your writing choppy.
Opening paragraphs. In the following opening paragraph, the writer begins with a generalization about academic architecture, then ends with a specific thesis stating what the rest of the essay will argue. Academic architecture invariably projects an identity about campus and community to building users and to the world beyond.
Yet in other cases, the architectural language established in surrounding precedents may be more appropriate, even for high-tech facilities. The bottom line is that drastically reducing both crime rates and the number of people behind bars is technically feasible. Whether it is politically and organizationally feasible to achieve this remains an open question. Sometimes you can rely on established design conventions: in academic writing, there are specific guidelines for headings, margins, and line spacing.
No matter what your text includes, its design will influence how your audience responds to it and therefore how well it achieves your purpose.
To keep readers oriented as they browse multipage documents or websites, use design elements consistently. In a print academic essay, choose a single font for your main text and use boldface or italics for headings. In writing for the web, place navigation buttons and other major elements in the same place on every page.
Keep it simple. Resist the temptation to fill pages with unnecessary graphics or animations. Aim for balance. Create balance through the use of margins, images, headings, and spacing. Use color and contrast carefully. Academic readers usually expect black text on a white background, with perhaps one other color for headings.
Make sure your audience will be able to distinguish any color variations in your text well enough to grasp your meaning. Use available templates. To save time and simplify design decisions, take advantage of templates. In Microsoft Word, for example, you can customize font, spacing, indents, and other features that will automatically be applied to your document.
Websites that host personal webpages and presentation software also offer templates that you can use or modify.
The following guidelines will help you make those decisions. The fonts you choose will affect how well readers can read your text. Decorative fonts such as should be used sparingly. If you use more than one font, use each one consistently: one for headings, one for captions, one for the main body of your text. Every common font has regular, bold, and italic forms. Layout is the way text is arranged on a page.
An academic essay, for example, will usually have a title centered at the top and one-inch margins all around. Items such as lists, tables, headings, and images should be arranged consistently.
Line spacing. In general, indent paragraphs five spaces when your text is double-spaced; either indent or skip a line between paragraphs that are single-spaced. When preparing a text intended for online use, single-space your document, skip a line between paragraphs, and begin each paragraph flush left no indent.
Use a list format for information that you want to set off and make easily accessible. Number the items when the sequence matters in instructions, for example ; use bullets when the order is not important. Set off lists with an extra line of space above and below, and add extra space between the items on a list if necessary for legibility. White space and margins. To make your text attractive and readable, use white space to separate its various parts.
In general, use one-inch margins for the text of an essay or report. Headings make the structure of a text easier to follow and help readers find specific information. Whenever you include headings, you need to decide how to phrase them, what fonts to use, and where to position them. Phrase headings consistently. Make your headings succinct and parallel in structure.
Whatever form you decide on, use it consistently. Make headings visible. Position headings appropriately. If you are not following a prescribed format, you get to decide where to position the headings: centered, flush with the left margin, or even alongside the text, in a wide lefthand margin.
Position each level of head consistently. In print documents, you can often use photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams. Online or in spoken presentations, your options expand to include video and printed handouts.
A discussion of Google Glass might be clearer when accompanied by this photo. Tables are useful for displaying numerical information concisely, especially when several items are being compared. Presenting information in columns and rows permits readers to find data and identify relationships among the items. Pie charts can be used to show how a whole is divided into parts or how parts of a whole relate to one another.
Percentages in a pie chart should always add up to Plotting the lines together enables readers to compare the data at different points in time. Be sure to label the x and y axes and limit the number of lines to four at the most. Some software offers 3-D and other special effects, but simple graphs are often easier to read. Diagrams and flowcharts are ways of showing relationships and processes. This diagram shows how carbon moves between the Earth and its atmosphere.
Flowcharts can be made by using widely available templates; diagrams, on the other hand, can range from simple drawings to works of art. Avoid clip art. Position images as close as possible to the relevant discussion. Italian Economic Growth Rate, — If you use data to create a graph or chart, include source information directly below. Large files may be hard to upload without altering quality and can clog email inboxes.
Linking also allows readers to see the original context. To include your own video, upload it to YouTube; choose the Private setting to limit access. Be sure to represent the original content accurately, and provide relevant information about the source. Whatever the occasion, you need to make your points clear and memorable. This chapter offers guidelines to help you prepare and deliver effective presentations. Spoken texts need a clear organization so that your audience can follow you.
The beginning needs to engage their interest, make clear what you will talk about, and perhaps forecast the central points of your talk. The ending should leave your audience something to remember, think about, or do.
In the Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln follows a chronological structure. A tone to suit the occasion. In a presentation to a panel of professors, you probably would want to avoid too much slang and speak in complete sentences.
Slides and other media. Organize and draft your presentation. If in drafting you find you have too many points for the time available, leave out the less important ones.
Thank your listeners, and offer to take questions and comments if the format allows. Consider whether to use visuals. Remember, though, that visuals should be a means of conveying information, not mere decoration. You then offer only a brief introduction and answer questions. What visual tools if any you decide to use is partly determined by how your presentation will be delivered: face to face? You may also have to move furniture or the screen to make sure everyone can see your visuals.
Finally, have a backup plan. Computers fail; the internet may not work. Have an alternative in case of problems. Presentation software. Here are some tips for writing and designing slides. Use slides to emphasize your main points, not to reproduce your talk.
A list of brief points, presented one by one, reinforces your words; charts and images can provide additional information that the audience can take in quickly. On slides, sans serif fonts like Arial and Helvetica are easier to read than serif fonts like Times New Roman. Your text and illustrations need to contrast with the background. Dark content on a light background is easier to see and read than the reverse.
Decorative backgrounds, letters that fade in and out or dance across the screen, and sound effects can be more distracting than helpful; use them only if they help to make your point. Indicate in your notes each place where you need to advance to the next slide. Label handouts with your name and the date and title of the presentation.
Practice, practice, and then practice some more. Your audience will respond positively to that confidence. If possible, practice with a small group of friends to get used to having an audience. Speak clearly. Pause for emphasis. In writing, you have white space and punctuation to show readers where an idea or discussion ends. Stand up or sit up straight, and look at your audience. Use gestures for emphasis. To overcome any nervousness and stiffness, take some deep breaths, try to relax, and move your arms and the rest of your body as you would if you were talking to a friend.
To read an example presentation, go to digital. This chapter provides a description of the key elements of an essay that argues a position and tips for writing one. To be arguable, a position must reflect one of at least two points of view, making reasoned argument necessary: file sharing should or should not be considered fair use; selling human organs should be legal or illegal. Necessary background information. Sometimes, we need to provide some background on a topic so that readers can understand what is being argued.
To argue that file sharing should be considered fair use, for example, you might begin by describing the rise in file sharing and explaining fair-use laws. Good reasons. By itself, a position does not make an argument; the argument comes when a writer offers reasons to support the position. You might base an argument in favor of legalizing the sale of human organs on the fact that transplants save lives and that regulation would protect impoverished people who currently sell their organs on the black market.
Convincing evidence. For example, to support your position that fast food should be taxed, you might cite a nutrition expert who links obesity to fast food, offer facts that demonstrate the health-care costs of widespread obesity, and provide statistics that show how taxation affects behavior.
Careful consideration of other positions. No matter how reasonable you are in arguing your position, others may disagree or hold other positions. Widely debated topics such as animal rights or gun control can be difficult to write on if you have no personal connection to them. Better topics include those that interest you right now, are focused, and have some personal connection to your life.
Identify issues that interest you. Pick a few of the roles you list, and identify the issues that interest or concern you.
Try wording each issue as a question starting with should: Should college cost less than it does? Should student achievement be measured by standardized tests? What would be better than standardized tests for measuring student achievement? This strategy will help you think about the issue and find a clear focus for your essay. Choose one issue to write about. Generating ideas and text. Most essays that successfully argue a position share certain features that make them interesting and persuasive.
Consider what interests you about the topic and what more you may need to learn in order to write about it. It may help to do some preliminary research; start with one general source of information a news magazine or Wikipedia, for example to find out the main questions raised about your issue and to get some ideas about how you might argue it.
There are various ways to qualify your thesis: in certain circumstances, under certain conditions, with these limitations, and so on. You need to convince your readers that your thesis is plausible.
Start by stating your position and then answering the question why? This analysis can continue indefinitely as the underlying reasons grow more and more general and abstract. Identify other positions. Think about positions that differ from yours and about the reasons that might be given for those positions. To refute other positions, state them as clearly and as fairly as you can, and then show why you believe they are wrong.
Perhaps the reasoning is faulty or the supporting evidence is inadequate. Acknowledge their merits, if any, but emphasize their shortcomings. Ways of organizing an argument.
Alternatively, you might discuss each reason and any counterargument to it together. And be sure to consider the order in which you discuss your reasons. Usually, what comes last makes the strongest impression on readers, and what comes in the middle makes the weakest impression. End with Give the a call to second action, a reason, with support.
To read an example argument essay, go to digital. This chapter describes the key elements of an essay that analyzes a text and provides tips for writing one. Your readers may not know the text you are analyzing, so you need to include it or tell them about it before you can analyze it.
Attention to the context. All texts are part of ongoing conversations, controversies, or debates, so to understand a text, you need to understand its larger context. To analyze the lyrics of a new hip-hop song, you might need to introduce other artists that the lyrics refer to or explain how the lyrics relate to aspects of hip-hop culture.
A clear interpretation or judgment. When you interpret something, you explain what you think it means. In an analysis of a cologne advertisement, you might explain how the ad encourages consumers to objectify themselves.
Reasonable support for your conclusions. You might support your interpretation by quoting passages from a written text or referring to images in a visual text. Most of the time, you will be assigned a text or a type of text to analyze: the work of a political philosopher in a political science class, a speech in a history or communications course, a painting or sculpture in an art class, and so on.
You might also analyze three or four texts by examining elements common to all. In analyzing a text, your goal is to understand what it says, how it works, and what it means. To do so, you may find it helpful to follow a certain sequence for your analysis: read, respond, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions.
Read to see what the text says. Start by reading carefully, noting the main ideas, key words and phrases, and anything that seems noteworthy or questionable. Do you find the text difficult? Do you agree with what the writer says?
Decide what you want to analyze. Think about what you find most interesting about the text and why. Does the language interest you? You might begin your analysis by exploring what attracted your notice. Think about the larger context. All texts are part of larger conversations, and academic texts include documentation partly to weave in voices from the conversation.
Does he or she respond to something others have said? Is there any terminology that suggests that he or she is allied with a particular intellectual school or academic discipline? Words like false consciousness or hegemony, for instance, would suggest that the text was written by a Marxist scholar. Consider what you know about the writer or artist. The credentials, other work, reputation, stance, and beliefs of the person who created the text are all useful windows into understanding it.
Write a sentence or two summarizing what you know about the creator and how that information affects your understanding of the text. Visual texts might be made up of images, lines, angles, color, light and shadow, and sometimes words. Look for patterns in the way these elements are used. Write a sentence or two describing the patterns you discover and how they contribute to what the text says. Analyze the argument. What is the main point the writer is trying to make?
Are the reasons plausible and sufficient? Are the arguments appropriately qualified? How credible and current are they? After considering these questions, write a sentence or two summarizing the argument and your reactions to it. Come up with a thesis.
Do you want to show that the text has a certain meaning? Your analysis might be structured in at least two ways. You might discuss patterns or themes that run through the text. Alternatively, you might analyze each text or section of text separately. State your thesis. To read an example rhetorical analysis, go to digital. Newspapers report on local and world events; textbooks give information about biology, history, writing; websites provide information about products jcrew.
Very often this kind of writing calls for research: you need to know your subject in order to report on it. This chapter describes the key elements found in most reports and offers tips for writing one. Accurate, well-researched information. Reports usually require some research. The kind of research depends on the topic. Library research may be necessary for some topics—for a report on migrant laborers during the Great Depression, for example.
Most current topics, however, require internet research. For a report on local farming, for example, you might interview some local farmers. Various writing strategies. For example, a report on the benefits of exercise might require that you classify types of exercise, analyze the effects of each type, and compare the benefits of each. For a report on the financial crisis for a general audience, for example, you might need to define terms such as mortgage-backed security and predatory lending.
Appropriate design. Numerical data, for instance, can be easier to understand in a table than in a paragraph. A photograph can help readers see a subject, such as an image of someone texting while driving in a report on car accidents. If you get to choose your topic, consider what interests you and what you wish you knew more about.
They may be academic in nature or reflect your personal interests, or both. Even if an assignment seems to offer little flexibility, you will need to decide how to research the topic and how to develop your report to appeal to your audience.
And sometimes even narrow topics can be shaped to fit your own interests. Start with sources that can give you a general sense of the subject, such as a Wikipedia entry or an interview with an expert.
Your goal at this point is to find topics to report on and then to focus on one that you will be able to cover. Come up with a tentative thesis. Once you narrow your topic, write out a statement saying what you plan to report on or explain. Think about what kinds of information will be most informative for your audience, and be sure to consult multiple sources and perspectives. Revisit and finalize your thesis in light of your research findings.
Ways of organizing a report [Reports on topics that are unfamiliar to readers] Begin Explain by with an anecdote, quote, or other means of interesting comparing, Provide background, and state your thesis.
Describe classifying, your topic, analyzing defining causes or any key effects, terms. Conclude by restating your thesis or referring to your beginning. Conclude by topic; provide any necessary background information; state your Narrate the second event or procedure. Narrate the third event or procedure. Repeat as necessary. Conclude by restating your Repeat as necessary.
To read an example report, go to digital. Parents read their children bedtime stories as an evening ritual. Preachers base their sermons on religious stories to teach lessons about moral behavior. Grandparents tell how things used to be, sometimes telling the same stories year after year. College applicants write about significant moments in their lives.
Writing students are often called on to compose narratives to explore their personal experiences. This chapter describes the key elements of personal narratives and provides tips for writing one. Most narratives set up some sort of situation that needs to be resolved.
That need for resolution makes readers want to keep reading. Vivid detail. Details can bring a narrative to life by giving readers vivid mental images of the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and textures of the world in which your story takes place. To give readers a picture of your childhood home in the country, you might describe the gnarled apple trees in your backyard and the sound of crickets chirping on a spring night. You may reveal its significance in various ways, but try not to state it too directly, as if it were a kind of moral of the story.
Describe the setting. List the places where your story unfolds. Think about the key people. Narratives include people whose actions play an important role in the story. Try narrating the action using active and specific verbs pondered, shouted, laughed to capture what happened.
Consider the significance. You need to make clear why the event you are writing about matters. To cover a existing bad egress into a Model Home in a 55 Older park. Dangerous concrete Platform, stairs, and handrail falling apart from water erosion from bad water shed. Cover it with a a treated wood platform, stairs and handrail.
Edward maytum, I'll see what I can find and add. It will be helpful if you can State your country and city is codes very by Authority. Female I think you'll find that a deck built to existing deck codes will also be hose for swimming pool decks.
On by mod - El Cajon CA building reinforcement for seismic? Beth Probably though not to current standards Beth. In California the Field Act, barring un-reinforced masonry construction in California, was passed very quickly following the 10 March Longbeach California earthquake that caused extensive damage including to many school buildings. Nevertheless, even when I was inspecting earthquake damage in L.
Looking at an El Cajon CA building, 8 units, masonry construction. Would it be reinforced if built in the 's? Sorry I don't understand the question; don't know what's meant by a "raised tile deck" - perhaps more description of the design can clarify the question. In all events, you probably won't find building code citations in the model codes for your country, state or province that include venting details for decks.
THat doesn't mean that proper construction and design are not needed; start by identifying the manufacturer of your raised deck system so that we can see what they specify. Should a square foot raised tile deck, surrounded by structural concrete, have been vented in ?
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