Handbook of Research Methodology i Sample Copy. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical, chemical, manual, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written consent of its writer. The book is released by using the services of self-publishing house.
Printed in India ii Sample Copy. Shanti Bhushan Mishra Dr. Shanti Bhushan Mishra M. He received his degree of Bachelor of Science B. Gold Medalist in Post graduation M. Major contribution has been in the field of Diabetes especially engaged in investigating on natural antioxidant from botanical sources and their role in diabetes management.
His research interests lie in the area of pharmacological screening of herbal drugs, case studies, toxicity testing of natural products, isolation of phyto-constituents from plants, ranging from theory to design to implementation. He has collaborated actively with researchers in several other disciplines of pharmaceutical science and nanotechnology.
He has selected as nominee of CPCSEA Committee for the purpose of control and supervision of experiments on animals under ministry of environment, forest and climate change government of India.
He has published 50 research papers in national and international v Sample Copy. He has presented 28 papers in various national and international conferences as invited speaker and resource person.
He has three books and one book chapter in his credit. Shashi Alok completed his B. Pharm, M. His Ph. His present research projects are focused on phytopharmacological work on active isolated constituents from Indian folklore medicine directed to explore their therapeutic potential and attempting on formulation of standardized product by following the modern herbal Ayurvedic monographs and international guidelines.
His field of research focuses on Natural Products Chemistry, Pharmacognosy, pharmacological screening and standardization method development for herbals. He has more than 80 National and International publications in his credit, 1 Indian patent and also contributed in 3 book series.
He is having more than 10 years of experience in research and teaching viz. Pharmacognosy in graduate and post graduate departments. He is supervising a number of students in post graduate and under graduate under his active supervision. He is External Referee for Ph. D at the University of Otago, New Zealand. He is also serving the international scientific community by extending expertise as Editorial Board member, reviewer and referee in number of journal Elsevier and Academic Journals.
He has delivered many invited talk in different national and International conference. He has contributed as an invited Speaker in various national and international conferences.
He is specialist of development of noble phytochemicals, Bioassay guided fractionation of active phytoconstituents, modern chromatography and Histopathological studies. PREFACE Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines such as health, education, psychology, social work, nursing, public health, library studies, marketing research and pharmaceutical sciences.
The core philosophical base for this book comes from my conviction that, although these disciplines vary in content, their broad approach to a research enquiry is similar. This book, therefore, is addressed to these academic disciplines. This textbook provides students with an understanding of the concepts and techniques of qualitative and quantitative research, grants for research, report writing, data collection etc. It uses simple examples to demystify complex theories and methodologies.
This book is ideal for those readers with minimal knowledge of re-search as well as for those readers with intermediate knowledge who need a quick refresher regarding particular aspects of research design and methodology.
Although we have touched upon some of these issues in the relevant chapters, it is not possible or desirable to go into any greater detail in this book. Therefore, we have included every aspect of research in the relevant chapters. This well-organized book deals with the variety of research methods used in management and social sciences, with particular emphasis on the pharmacy course curriculum.
A Handbook of Research Methodology is recommended for use in undergraduate and postgraduate courses focusing on research methodologies in various disciplines. Authors x Sample Copy. Content Page 1. Fundamentals of research 1 Meaning and objective of research, types of research basic, applied and patent oriented , defining research problem, research process and steps involved in research process, research proposal or synopsis.
Data collection, analysis and hypothesis 30 Classification of data, methods of data collection, sample size, sampling procedure and methods. Data processing and graphical representation of data.
Hypothesis: Types of hypothesis experimental and non- experimental. Research ethics, plagiarism and impact of 60 research xii Sample Copy. Research ethics, responsibility and accountability of the researchers, ethical consideration during animal experimentation including CPCSEA guidelines, Plagiarism and use of plagiarism detection softwares. Technical writing and reporting of research 92 Types of research report: Dissertation and thesis, research paper, review article, short communication, conference presentation, meeting report etc.
Structure and organization of research reports: Title, abstract, key words, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, acknowledgement, references, footnotes, tables and illustrations.
Impact factor, rating, indexing and citation of journals. Project cost management Cost analysis of the project, cost incurred on raw materials, procedure, instrumentation and biological testing.
Writing a research project and procurement of research grant. Declaration of Helsinki History, introduction, basic principles for all medical research, and additional principles for medical research combined with medical care.
It is a science of studying how research is conducted systematically. In this field the researcher explains himself with the different steps generally taken to study a research problem. Hence, the scientific approach which is adopted for conducting a research is called methodology. Meaning of Research The term Research is related to seek out the information and knowledge on a particular topic or subject.
In other words, research is an art of systematic investigation. Someone says that necessity is mother of all the inventions and the person engaged in this scientific investigation can be termed as research.
Research is a pedagogic action the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi Alok Objectives of Research The major aim of any type of research is to find out the reality and facts which is unknown and which has not been exposed. Although each research activity has its own particular reason, the objectives of research can be grouped into the following categories : 1.
To achieve skillfulness with a trend or to get novel opinions into it research with this objective can be termed as exploratory or formulative ; 2. It is related to object that can be expressed in terms of quantity or something that can be counted. Such type of research involve systematic experimental analysis of observable phenomenon via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques in numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc.
Such type of research is typically descriptive and harder to analyze than quantitative data. Qualitative research involves looking in-depth at non-numerical data. It is more naturalistic or anthropological.
Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea s or theory. It focuses on the concept and 3 Sample Copy.
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi Alok theory that explain the concerned theory being studied. It is generally used by logicians, philosophers and theorist to develop new concepts or to again understand the existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone.
It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. We can also refer it as experimental type of research.
In such a research it is necessary to get the facts and data firstly, their source, and then actively engaged to doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
In the former case the research is restricted to a single time-period, while in the latter case the research is carried on over several time- periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or model research, which will depend upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research may be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or exhaustively approaches to reach the basic reasons behind the problems. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the creation of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research are those with significant structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
The term historical research is refers to that which make use of historical resource like documents, papers, leaflets remains, etc. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher having freethinking to choose a problem, redesign the queries as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wants.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to get on research according to his own preference. Handbook of Research Methodology Research Process Research process consists of sequence of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired progression of these steps.
The chart shown in Figure 1represents a research process. But these activities should be following in a strictly prescribed sequence otherwise researcher may face the problem in completion of the research. In the research process, each step is specific and they are separate and distinct from each other.
However, the following order relating to various steps provides a useful procedural instruction regarding the research process: 1 Identification of research problem 2 Broad literature survey 3 Hypothesis formulation 4 Preparation of research design 5 Determining sample design 6 Data collection 7 Analysis of data 8 Hypothesis testing 9 Generalizations and interpretation 10 Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, 5 Sample Copy.
Identification of research problem: There are two types of research problems like, those which relate to states of nature means that denote the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might have been like before societies came into existence and those which relate to relationships between different variables. Initially the researcher must recognize the problem he wants to study, i.
At the onset the problem may be discussed in a broad way and then the doubts, if any, relating to the problem may be resolved. Then, the probability of a particular clarification has to be considered before working on formulation of the problem.
Basically two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz. The most excellent way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with contemporaries or with those having some knowledge in the related matter. In an academic institution the researcher can take the assistance from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in his mind. In private business units or in governmental organizations, the problem is usually allocate by the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss the problem originally that how it is came about and what reflections are involved in its possible clarification.
Broad literature survey: After the identification of research problem, the researcher must at study all available literature to get himself familiar with the selected problem.
He may review two types of literature first is the conceptual literature which is related to the concepts and theories, and second is the empirical literature which consisting of previous studies similar to the proposed research problem.
The researcher should undertake vast literature survey concerned with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place where researcher can get the 6 Sample Copy. Handbook of Research Methodology information or knowledge.
Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. After this the researcher revise the problem into analytical or operational terms i. This assignment of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a important step in the entire research process. Once the problem is formulated, a synopsis of it should be written down.
Hypotheses formulation: After the literature survey, researcher should make a hypothesis or working hypothesis. Working hypothesis is a guess made to test the logical or empirical outcome of a research. A hypothesis assists to explain the research problem and objective into a comprehensive explanation or prediction of the expected results of the study. Hypothesis is derived from the research problem, literature review and conceptual framework.
Since Hypothesis is to be tested therefore it should be very specific and limited to the piece of research. Hypothesis formulation could be done by using the following approaches: a Discussions with colleagues and experts about the research problem, its source, cause and the objectives in search of a solution; b Assessment of data and records, c Evaluation of similar previous studies in the area similar problems; and d Personal investigation which involves original field survey Thus, any hypotheses take place as a result of a-prior thinking about the subject, assessment of the available data and material including related previous studies.
Formulation of working hypotheses is a basic step of any research process. Preparation of research design: A good research design will be prepared if a research problem should be stated clearly. In other words, the purpose of research design is refers as general procedure that you choose to combine the various components of 7 Sample Copy. Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shashi Alok the study in a consistent and logical way.
It comprises the outline for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. A flexible research design which offers the opportunity for allowing the different aspects of a problem is considered suitable if the purpose of the research study is to be clear.
There are several research designs, such as, Descriptive e. It can be supposed that in such type of inquiry all the items are covered and not a single element is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practical way this may not be true because a single element of bias in such inquiry will get larger the number of observations increases.
Moreover, there is no way of scrutiny the element of bias or its level except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, such type of inquiry comprises a lot of time, money and energy. Apart from this, census inquiry is not possible practically under many conditions. For example, blood sugar testing is done only on sample basis.
This type of analysis is used as a tool to analyse in the field of 1 Field of study. This method is known to challenge the grounds of quantitative method of data gathering and question the idea of objective data, but at the same time it has been critiqued for not being theoretical enough.
Descriptive Data Analysis Quantitative method is discipline in which the descriptive data analysis takes its prominence. It aims at summarising a sample available to the researcher. Thus it also shows that it is not developed on the probability theory It provides simple summaries of the sample and also about the observation made on them, such observation are usually quantitative or visual such as graphs and lab observations.
This type of analysis is sufficient in and of themselves for a particular investigation. Statistical Data Analysis Statistical analysis is very important for all the research or experiments that involve statistics as a research methodology. The vast majority of social sciences and many important researches in natural science and engineering employ statistical analysis. It is also a very useful tool to bring out the approximate solutions to a highly complex or unknown in its true form.
In social sciences the statistical analysis is at its heart of the research. Unfortunately, statistical analysis can intentionally or unintentionally used to reach a faulty conclusion. Statistics is just a tool and not a substitute for in- depth analysis and reasoning.
The main purpose of sampling is to provide various type of statistical information, which can be of qualitative or quantitative in nature by examining a few selected units or participants. Research instruments can be helpful tools to the research study. Survey Survey is often used to access the opinion, thoughts and feelings.
It can be of timed and limited or the other way around. A survey consists of predetermined questions that are given to a select group of people. It can also be used to determine the change in behaviour or attitudes over time.
There are four main methods of employing the survey method; mail survey, personal interview, telephone interview, and internet survey. Questionnaire A questionnaire is one of the simplest and the quickest of getting information from a large number of people. The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves. Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible.
Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words. Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank 16 Arvin, Shelley. Open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people think about a service. This type of questionnaire is in search of opinions which are rather than numbers; fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.
Combination of both: This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and what they think of the service in the same form.
Begins with a series of closed — ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response. The term is coined by psychologist and marketing expert Ernest Dichter In which the questions are asked in a group of people. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members. The analysis of focus group data presents both challenges and opportunities when compared to other types of qualitative data.
Some authors have suggested that data should be analysed in the same manner as interview data, while others have suggested that the unique features of focus group data - particularly the opportunity that it provides to observe interactions between group members - means that distinctive forms of analysis should be used.
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